Impact of Advertising on Youth Essay

Definition Youth is considered as a period of transition from the dependence of childhood to the independence of adulthood. Due to the expansion of global higher education and delayed marriage, the period of time from youth to adulthood has been extended longer compared to before the expansion. As a result, the marketers, educators and policy makers consider youth stage as a stage that is becoming more important to them (Assaad and Roudi-Fahimi, 2007). According to United Nation (UN), they define ‘youth’ as â€Å"those persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years† (UNESCO, 2013). Malaysia follows the United Nation’s definition of youth by changing the old age group of youth from 18 to 40 years old to the new age group of 18 to 25 years old under a new National Youth Policy (The Star Online, 2011). Based on Malaysia Demographics Profile 2014, the number of population for age structure 15 to 24 years old is 2, 580, 486 for male and 2, 511, 579 for female (Index Mundi, 2014). Consumer purchasing behaviour or also known as consumer buyer behaviour is studied to be an inseparable part of marketing and Schiffman (2007) state that consumer buying behaviour is â€Å"the behaviours that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs†. Advertising is a marketers’ technique and a method of communication to encourage and persuade potential or current consumers. These potential or current consumers can be viewers, readers or listeners and they will be persuaded to continue using the marketers’ services or products or take some new action after the advertisement. Sponsors commonly paid for the advertising messages and it can be viewed by means of numerous traditional media and new media (Upadhyay & Joshi, 2014). Advertising Industry in Malaysia In Malaysia, the advertising industry is considered as a profitable business. Malaysia spends about RM2.39 billion in the first half of the year 2007 and this is a 9% increase from the same period in the year 2006 where it is RM2.2 billion. This shows there is a steady growth for this industry in Malaysia (The Report Malaysia, 2008). Furthermore, from the year 2000, there is an increase of 76% for advertising expenditure with cinema, point-of-sale and radio advertising experiencing a triple-digit growth for this same period of time (The Report Malaysia, 2008). Although this industry is lucrative for business, the content for advertisement is highly restricted by the Malaysian Communication & Multimedia Content Code (MCMCC, 2009). Aim Malaysia’s total advertising expenditure rose 22% by the first half of 2008  compared to the last year’s advertising expenditure. This accounted to the expenditure of RM2.9 billion alone for advertisement (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 2009). There is no certainty that the money spent on advertisements will give the necessary profits that these companies expected to gain. Due to the fact that the highest purchasing power belongs to the youths, the companies should target the existing youth market. In order to target this market, companies should be equipped with extensive knowledge on which aspect of advertisement that heavily influences the youths’ purchasing behaviour. This research aims to find the factors of advertising that influences the youths’ purchasing behaviour. As youth purchasing power is on the rise and the content of advertisement is highly restricted by the Malaysian Communication & Multimedia Content Code, it is imp erative for the marketers and advertisers to understand what aspects of advertisement that appeals to the eyes of the youth consumers. Motivation of this Study Global youth market is â€Å"an impressionable and loyal market that are making decisions and gathering information on products and companies that could last a lifetime† (Maddock, n.d.). The international marketers and advertisers consider the global youth market as a noteworthy market to consider due to its size, homogeneity and its rising purchasing power. Due to the consideration that they are a significant market, these knowledgeable consumers that are in the youth market have been sniped with promotions for most of their lives. Although there are many types of marketing weapons that can be used to influence them, advertising still remains as the main weapon due to its longer impact on viewer’s mind (Katke, 2007). Even though it is a known fact that youths’ purchasing power is on the rise compared to other range of age, there are still limited researches that have been done regarding this topic. Most researches centred on the relationship between advertising and general consumer purchasing behaviour in other countries. There are inadequate amount of research that was done concerning the relationship between advertising and youths’ purchasing behaviour in Malaysia. Therefore, this research is made to understand what makes an advertisement desirable to the Malaysian youths and its influences on their purchasing behaviour. Problem Statements The world in year 2014 is home to 1.8 billion young people from the age of 10 until 24 (UNFPA, 2014) and majority of the purchasing power belongs to them. This makes them the most persuasive in making purchasing decisions in terms of food, clothing and cars to entertainment and family vacations. They even have a say on what type of home they will live in (Jennifer Waters, 2006). This makes the youths an important target market for advertising agency and companies all around the world. The primary mission of advertisement is to reach the intended consumer and influence their awareness attitudes and buying behaviour. As they spend a huge sum of money to maintain the consumer’s interest in their products, they need to understand what catches the consumer’s interest. Furthermore, due to the heavy regulated nature of this business, it is vital to evaluate the factors of youths’ attitude towards advertising to discover what antecedents that would affect youths’ preferences are. Research Questions The research questions are as follows: 1. Which aspect of advertisement influence youths in purchasing the product or service? 2. What is the relationship between advertisement and youths purchasing behaviour? 3. Why is advertising critical in ensuring the survival of the company? Research Objectives The objectives of this research are to: 1. Identify the aspects of advertisement which influences youths in purchasing the product or service. 2. Determine the relationship between advertisement and youths’ purchasing behaviour. 3. Ascertain the importance of advertising in ensuring the survival of the company. Scope of this Research This research centres around the impact of advertising on youths’ purchasing behaviour. In this research, youth is considered as anyone from age 18 to 24 years old. Furthermore, this research will be conducted at four different private universities in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (HELP University, Open University and University of Kuala Lumpur) as there is a limited amount of  money and time to travel to anywhere else. In addition, this research only consider students from different courses; one course per one private university. This research will only test whether the Independent Variables (credibility, informative, hedonic/pleasure, good for economy) influences the Dependent Variable (impact of advertising on youths’ purchasing behaviour). Significance of this research All companies in Malaysia spend a huge sum of money on marketing strategy of advertisement to introduce the product or services that they provide in market to consumers. Furthermore, with the restrictions to create creative advertisements from the Malaysian Communication & Multimedia Content Code, it made the job of the advertisers harder due to restricted contents that are allowed in an advertisement. Therefore, through this research, marketers and advertisers are able to identify the aspects of advertisements that youths in Malaysia prefer to have in an advertisement. This will help to save a lot of the marketing world’s expenditure and time as they are able to come up with a more efficient, successful and popular advertisement to suit the taste of youths in Malaysia. Theoretical Framework The dependent variable for this research is ‘impact of advertising on youth purchasing behaviour’. This research aims to find the factors of advertising that influences the youths’ purchasing behaviour. The first independent variable is ‘credibility’. According to MacKenzie and Lutz (1989), advertising credibility is consumers’ overall awareness towards the honesty, reliability, dependability and credibility of an advertisement. The second independent variable is ‘informative’. As recipients react very positively towards advertisements that provide information, information is treated as a very valuable incentive in the marketing world (Varshney, 2003). The third independent variable in this research is ‘hedonic or pleasure’. Abd Aziz, Mohd Yasin, and Syed A. Kadir (2008) found that advertisements can be pleasurable and entertaining in enticing and retaining attention given to customers’ desires and requirements. Lastly, the fourth independent variable  is ‘good for economy’. Based on the research done by Bauer and Greyser (1968), over 70 percent of their research sample believed that the living standard increased due to advertising and this in turn led to good products. Underpinning Theory The underpinning theory that will be used as a guidance to accomplish part of this research is the Hierarchy of Effects Model by Robert J. Lavidge and Gary A. Steiner. This marketing communication model that was created in the year 1961 suggests that there are six stages that an advertiser has to guide the consumer to go through. After these six stages, the consumer has to decide whether to buy or not the products or services offered. The six stages comprises of awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction and the final stage, purchase (Nguyen, 2013). This research will be using the Hierarchy of Effects Model as a guide to develop the questions in the research’s questionnaire and also as a guide to analyse and understand the research’s results. Proposed Research Methodology The main purpose of this research is â€Å"To Evaluate the Impact of Advertising on Youths’ Purchasing Behaviour† among Malaysian youths. A survey will be conducted amongst the private university students in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and a thorough analysis of the results will be made. Sample Size A sample of â€Å"200† questionnaires will be distributed for the purpose of study and analysis. Sampling Unit Sampling unit consist of private university students in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sampling Technique Convenience sampling technique (non-probability sampling) is going to be used for the survey. Questionnaire will be filled by the private university students. Data collection: data will be collected through primary and secondary sources. 1. Primary data: primary data are going to be collected with the assistance of structured questionnaire. 2. Secondary data: Source of secondary data is going to be collected using the help of published reports, journals, and credible websites. Sample In this research, the sample will consists of 200 students (N = 200) selected from university students from four private universities in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia using convenient sampling technique. The sample size will be consisted of university students of age between 18 to 24 years old from four different courses. Survey Instruments The main objective of this research is to analyse the impact of advertising on youths’ purchasing behaviour for private university students in Kuala Lumpur. The data for this research will be collected by well developed, structured five point Likert Scale questionnaires. All of the questionnaires are going to be distributed among the students from four different private universities of four different courses. The answers from the questionnaire will be collected in a period of two weeks and the results will be analysed and evaluated using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20.0 of IBM. The questionnaire is divided into two sections; section I and section II. Section I contains questions about the awareness about the advertisements and section II contains questions that describes the recent purchase the private students had done with the assistance of the advertisements that they have seen and attracted to. For this research, the Likert scale will contain a five point scale where number 1 is for strongly agrees while number 5 if for strongly disagrees. The five point Likert scale will be defined as below to help with the analysis of the results. (Number 1) Strongly agree (Number 2) Agree (Number 3) Neutral/No opinion (Number 4) Disagree (Number 5) Strongly disagree Conclusion Advertising industry is a very lucrative industry in Malaysia as it is able to make a high profit in a short time. The same cannot be said for any company that invests a huge amount of money in to make advertisements for their products or services. Advertising is a risk that companies have to  take in order to spread awareness to consumers about their new or existing products. When a particular advertisement is successful in catching the consumers’ attention and able to convince them to purchase the product or services, the sales for the company will increase but when it fails, the profits drops. As companies need to take such high risks every time they need to produce advertisements, it is important for them to know which market has the highest purchasing power and to have knowledge on how to attract these potential consumers. It is identified that youths have the highest purchasing power among all range of ages and this research aims to identify the factors of advertising that influences the youths’ purchasing behaviour. This research’s theoretical framework consists of four independent variables that are credibility, informative, hedonic/pleasure and good for economy and the dependent variable is impact of advertising on youths’ purchasing behaviour. In order to execute the research, Hierarchy of Effects Model by Robert J. Lavidge and Gary A. Steiner will be used as an underpinning theory. Five point Likert Scale questionnaires will be distributed and collected in two weeks to university students from four different private universities. This research will be done in hopes that companies are able to produce more stimulating and successful advertisements to youths. References Abd Aziz, N., Mohd Yasin, N., & Syed A. Kadir, B. (2008). Web advertising beliefs and attitude: Internet users’ view. The Business Review, Cambridge, 9(2), 337-337. Advertising Development In Malaysia: Catching Eyebals in Changing Media. (2009, January 1). Retrieved January 27, 2015, from http://www.skmm.gov.my/skmmgovmy/files/attachments/Ad_Dev_Malaysia.pdf Assaad, R., & Roudi-Fahimi, F. (2007, April 1). Youth in the Middle East and North Africa: Demographic opportunity or challenge? Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf07/youthinmena.pdf Bauer, R., & Greyser, S. (1968). Advertising in America: The consumer view. Unpublished Graduate Dissertation, Boston, MA: Harvard University. Gupta, M., Engelman, R., Levy, J., Luchsinger, G., Merrick, T., & Rosen, J. (2014, January 1). The Power of 1.8 Billion: Adolescents, Youth, and the Transformation of the Future. Retrieved from http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/EN-SWOP14-Report_FINAL-web.pdf Katke, K. (n.d.). The Impact of Television Advertising on Child Health & Family Spending. Retrieved from http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/newslog/content/binary/20-2008jpg. Lim, W. (2011, November 17). Only those aged 18 to 25 defined as youth. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/story/?file=/2011/11/17/nation/9918718&sec=nation MacKenzie, S., & Lutz, R. (1989). An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context. Journal of Marketing, 53, 48-65. MCMCC, The Malaysian communications and multimedia content code. (1998, January 1). Retrieved from http: //www.cmcf.org.my/FILES/CONTENT_CODE_ (V6-Final).PDF. Maddock, T. (n.d.). Youth Marketing: Tips for reaching the lucrative teen, tween and college markets. Retrieved January 23, 2015, from file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/youth_marketing_whitepaper.pdf Malaysia Demographics Profile 2014. (2014, A ugust 23). Retrieved from http://www.indexmundi.com/malaysia/demographics_profile.html Nguyen, H. (2013). The Hierarchy Model of Advertising Effects: A Debate. International Integration, 92-96. Schiffman, L., Hansen, H., & Kanuk, L. (2007). Consumer Behaviour: A European Outlook. London: Pearson Education. The Report Malaysia. (2008). London, UK: Oxford Business Group. Upadhyay, P., & Joshi, J. (2014). Impact of Advertising on Buying Behavior of Youth in Kota City with Special Reference to Branded Outfits. International Journal of Managerial Studies and Research (IJMSR), 2(2), 1-20. Varshney, U. (2003). Location management for mobile commerce applications in wireless internet environment. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, 3(3), 236-255. Waters, J. (2006, October 11). Young, with tons of purchasing power. Retrieved January 13, 2015, from http://www.marketwatch.com/story/young-americans-a-giant-influence-on-buying-decisions-study What do we mean by â€Å"youth†? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/youth/youth-definition/

My Life Changing Experience Essay

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David Bordwell on Tsui Hark Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

David Bordwell on Tsui Hark - Essay Example Tsui Hark is a director of a wide horizon and rich experiences. He is able to appeal to inner world of every viewer and thus he makes a puzzle for modern cinema critics who try to find an answer to the question why his films are popular. David Bordwell has devoted a lot of his works and discussions to Tsui Hark. He considers this director in an unprejudiced manner and it is quite interesting to follow development of his ideas. Hark’s nature is divided as it is claimed by Bordwell. It is interesting, what does Bordwell mean? Hark shots his films under conditions of modern globalization and it is relevant to him to follow the needs of the modern society and to find a way to hearts of Western and Asian viewers. Bordwell underlines, that â€Å"The transnational nature in his cinema helps him to both establish his personal style and gain commercial success in Asia† (Bordwell 2000, p. 140). Moreover, â€Å"In Tsui’s best films, Hong Kong cinema becomes a Chinese feast , spiced by indigenous entertainment traditions, replenished by an artist’s pragmatic energy and restless imagination† (Bordwell 2000, p. 148). From these two claims it is quite obvious that Bordwell means multi-sided nature of Hark’s films. ... Versatility of Tsui Hark’s films can be explained by combination of different genres, Asian and Western cultures and adding technological effects in his films. In Once Upon a Time in China Tsui shows relationship between Eastern and Western worlds, if to be more exact, between China and Western countries. Tsui chooses the best period for showing peculiarities of Chinese society development under conditions of being captured by Western countries. All spheres of life of Chinese people were influenced by ‘strangers’. Western civilization put an end to the Qing dynasty. On the example of martial artist Huang Feihong Tsui shows possible alternatives of dealing with Western invasion. Western technological progress was like a huge machine oppressing centennial cultural heritage of China. Nevertheless Tsui appeals to his viewers and underlines that it is necessary to reconstruct realities of China in accordance with generally accepted norms and ideals all over the world. Though Tsui presents multi-sided consideration about China’s reaction to the changes introduced by Western civilization, he has a strong background of his claims, a theory by Sheldon Lu on China and transnationalism. Lu’s theory was not chosen incidentally by Tsui as well, because Lu’s considerations are also ambiguous: â€Å"In the domestic and global arena of image production and consumption, we may distinguish two opposite yet complementary strategies in the politics of self representation of China† (Bordwell, 2000, p. 145). Consequently, Lu suggests that satisfaction of viewers of the Western world would emerge in case erotic and exotics of Chinese worlds was

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Events that left to the Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Robert Wright's The Moral Animal--polygyny - Essay Example This difference doesn’t make any sex better than the other. Rather, this difference is necessary for creating attraction in gender for others. Robert defines the woman to be the sex that makes greater contribution towards the sex cell. Owing to having the larger sex cell, it is more precious in the regard of resources, and hence difficult to find also. Women have the capability of nurturing the reproductive cells within them for 20 times while men have far greater capability to initiate the reproduction in women. The reproductive capability of the females is very small that makes the males to compete very much for it. As males can reproduce with one sperm per woman, they will be eager to get attracted to more females. Due to eagerness of men towards their sexual desires, they tend to marry more than one woman that sets the basis for Polygyny. Men are always on the lookout for infertile cells that are more attractive. After sometime from marriage, they start looking for another woman because their first wife is not attractive in her physical shape anymore. The psychology of females is entirely different. They want the effective meeting with men to produce the valuable genes that can result in offspring. They are not eager for number but for effectiveness rather. Women seek partnership with those males who have greater capability to help them in nurturing the offspring. As a result, you can easily correlate the choice of women to the status of men. Thus the desire for women is to seek the mate that can provide security and greater nurturing to the offspring. According to the Robert Wright, the genetic combination should be decided intelligently after properly analyzing the genetic environment and the status of males. After that, the partners have to choose suitable strategy for their reproduction. What females are interested in is â€Å"Male Parental Investment (MPI)†. The more the value of MPI, the securer the woman will feel

The Consumer Value from Online Shopping Research Proposal

The Consumer Value from Online Shopping - Research Proposal Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that consumer value basically refers to the satisfaction that the buyers get after purchasing a product. People belong to different localities and different age groups might have different views about the consumer value from online shopping and to prepare a marketing strategy for people of different ages and localities it is crucial to understand the differences in their thinking because an effective and adequate online marketing plan must cover some essential components like market analysis, marketing strategies specifically for internet, Design, and Contents plan for the website and consumer behavior analysis. Along with the spread of internet the trend of shopping online is also rising steadily and in this context, it is very necessary to understand that how much the consumers are getting value for the products that they shop online. The understanding of this issue is crucial because, in the highly competitive marketplace of today, interne t has emerged as an effective marketing tool   but to run the businesses online it is very necessary to have deep insight of the behaviors and psychographics of the online buyers so that marketing strategies could be designed according to the consumer behaviors. Berthon, Pitt, Watson discovered that online consumer is not an easy target for the marketers. and to be successful the marketing plan must possess the value factor as a leading device that should be used in the advertisements, promotional messages, information about the products etc and the value should be expressed in a way that the consumer can notice the value attached with the product. Before designing a marketing plan for online shopping it is again very important that there should be a comprehensive research that unfolds all the issues that how the people belonging to different age groups people view the idea of shopping online, how they are attracted towards products online and how do they view the product value th at they shop online. In this regard, it is also important to understand the thinking style and opinions of the people belonging to different age groups like teen 15-20, 21-29, 30-39, and 40 and above. Hence in this study opinions will be gathered from the people belonging to these different groups so that their behavior could be interpreted in the marketing plan.

Zero Tolerance Policing and New York Quality Essay Example for Free

Zero Tolerance Policing and New York Quality Essay Another understanding of zero tolerance policing posits that the law enforcement officers, will ignore minor offenders and cases of social disorder and concentrate on quality of life or the sub criminal activities such as public urinating, public drinking, begging, vagrancy and vandalism. Often behind this understanding is the theory of crime: broken windows theory, published by George Kelling and James Wilson (1982). In such a theory a broken window is representative of disorderly behavior and minor cases of criminal acts among the community. Usually if such a window is not repaired the message is that there is lack of control in the community and another window is likely to be broken. Under such a theory there is bound to be an increase in activity against minor offenders without any prior offenders (Marshall 1999). A classic example is the New York scenario where the zero tolerance policing possessed salient and easily distinguishable characteristics. Key among these characteristics is the unique crime control strategies that ensured that policing efforts were concentrated on drugs, guns, auto theft, traffic offenses, domestic violence, youth crime, and quality of life crimes. Over a period of two years, decentralized policing ensured that detectives and beat officers were assigned predetermined categories in the crime control strategies. Additionally, timely, accurate and reliable intelligence data identified cases where the potential of risk was more predominant. Emphasis on the quality of life crimes ensured that incidences of graffiti, public littering and cases of public drinking were reduced (Marshall 1999). Persons suspected of being involved in relatively minor crimes were also targeted through misdemeanor arrests. The result was an emulative success story where crime significantly reduced. However, despite these successes, there are concerns that security agents are using aggression and ruthlessness when dealing with comparatively low level criminal activity. Moreover, over emphasis and reliance on quantitative statistical data as a presentation of success can lead to manipulation of such data to suit the objectives of the policy makers. Even if such figures of crime reduction were genuine, zero tolerance policing emphasizes on short term law enforcement strategies such as arrests, conviction and imprisonment while neglecting long term strategies which involve cooperation with the communities, improving education, health care and planning. Because it is basically a quick fix strategy it fails to address the clearly understood causes of crime (Marshall 1999). Problem Oriented Policing Problem oriented policing focuses on clear identification and analysis of problems with respect to the conditions that exist in the local circumstances. It is a novel policing strategy that aims at ensuring that the police effectively deal with criminal problems that have been brought to the fore by the public (Leigh et al 2004).

History of Japan and its Relationship with the World

History of Japan and its Relationship with the World CHAPTER II JAPAN IN ITS SURROUNDING REGION 2.1 Japan in the Post Cold War World When the Berlin wall fell, symbolizing the end of the Cold War, the global balance of power shifted from a tense military stand-off between the worlds two superpowers-the Soviet Union and United States- to one of American dominance. The end of the Cold War, which had gripped the world for nearly a half century, transformed the parameters and dynamics of international security. The end of Cold War did not have the same, immediate impact in Asia than it did in Europe. There was no Soviet Empire in Asia comparable to the vast territories under Moscows control in Europe. While Communist regimes collapsed from Berlin to Moscow, Marxism-Leninism continued to be the ruling orthodoxy in the PRC, North Korea, and Vietnam. In Europe, the fall of the Berlin Wall led to German unification, removing what had been arguably the greatest source of tension in European politics between 1945 and 1989. in Asia, however, disputes over national boundaries remained widespread, from the demilitarized zone between the two Koreas to the Spratley Islands in the South China Sea. Although the collapse of Soviet Union led to a considerable reduction in military tensions in Asia, the potential of conflict, if anything, increased on the Korean peninsula and in the Taiwan Strait. In the bold new world, Japan continued to confront with the strategic dilemma of protecting the vital sea-lanes along with the lifeblood of its economy flowed. Historically rooted fears of Japanese military power eased somewhat, at least in Japan and South East Asia. Nonetheless, the Japanese public remained profoundly uncomfortable with the notion that Japan should assume a larger military role, and in Northeast Asia-especially in China and Korea-historical animosities emerged all the stronger. The 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States has also altered the world significantly. Governments around the world now realize that they are facing a new kind of threat that differs from the traditional ones. These new threat also includes various other kinds of aspects that influenced Japans security environment, such as Human trafficking, drug related crime, cyber crime, money laundering, Piracy, and other cross-border organized crimes. This research applies the Neorealism assumption that structures defines a states behaviour, and implies Kenneth N. Waltzs notion that a state is a rational actor that chooses its security strategy based on an assessment of its security environment. In this sense, the researcher argues that Japans relationship with its closest neighbours and also the emergence of the non traditional threat determines how Japan acts towards its alliance relationship with the United States in accordance with its effort on reaching security. Therefore, in this chapter the researcher will try to explore Japans regional environments, which will be explained through several crucial issues that Japan is facing with its neighbours. But before that, in order to explain Japans position in the region, it is also crucial to understand the basic nature of Japan, including its unique pacifist policies, its dilemma on defining national interest, and also its evolving defence posture. 2.2 Japan as a Pacifist Country Japan, or also known as â€Å"The Land of the Rising Sun†[1] is a moderately small country with a total of 377,835 square kilometres of total area and 374,744 square kilometres of land area.[2]. Japan has a Constitutional Monarchy[3] political system with its Emperor as symbol of state. It also has a Parliamentary form of government, with elected bicameral legislature called National Diet[4], consisting of House of Councillors, and also House of Representatives.[5] The head of the government in Japan is the Prime Minister, who must be a member of the House of Representatives and is usually the leader of the largest party in the House of Representatives. After its defeat in the Second World War, Japan has been positioning itself in the relationship among nations as a pacifist country. The subsequent sub-chapter will explore more of Japans pacifist constitution, which has been a symbol of Japans commitment to peace and more importantly its renunciation of wartime militarism. The following sub-chapter will also mentions several of Japans basic principle on pacifism, which clearly signs its effort in war renunciation, namely those principles are the Three Principles of Arms Exports, the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, and also the Self-Defense Force Law. 2.2.1 Japans Peace Constitution Since its promulgation in 1946, Japans constitution, and in particular its preamble and the article 9 â€Å"peace clause,† have occupied central positions in determining the direction of Japanese security policy. The constitution is the origin of a range of prohibitions and anti-militaristic principles that constrain Japans use of military force for national security ends, limiting the military to defending only the states own territory. It also creates significant barriers to cooperation with the United States and with the wider international community.[6] The constitutions preamble states Japans ideals with regard to security: We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honoured place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. [7] Chapter 2 of article 9 of the constitution, â€Å"The Renunciation of War,† reads as follows†: â€Å"Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized.†[8] Article 9 is the cornerstone of Japans pacifism. But Pacifism alone has not keep Japan free and safe, Japans security has been guaranteed by the presence of American military personnel in Japan and the shelter of the US nuclear umbrella. 2.2.2 Japans Self-Defense Force Law Having renounced war, the possession of war potential, the right of belligerency, and the possession of nuclear weaponry, Japan held the view that it should possess only the minimum defense necessary to face external threats. within those limits, the self defense forces law of 1954 provides the basis from which various formulations of SDF missions have been derived. The law states that ground, maritime, and air forces are to preserve the peace and independence of the nation and to maintain national security by conducting operations on land, at sea, and in the air to defend the nation against direct and indirect aggression. [9] 2.2.3 Japans Three Non-Nuclear Principles As the only nation in the world to experience the disastrous effect of the nuclear weapon, the Japanese people strongly put emphasize on the effort to eliminate nuclear weapons. This notion has been firmly translated into the non-nuclear principles that Japan is upholding until now. Articulated by Prime Minister Eisaku Sato in 1967, Japans Three Non-Nuclear principles are:[10] Ø Not to make such (nuclear) weapons Ø Not to possess them Ø Not to bring them into Japan Japan later reaffirmed the principles when ratifying the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1976 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely in 1995. After 64 years of its promulgation, in 2009, Japans Prime Minister Taro Aso reaffirms that Japan would still going to adhere to its Three Non-Nuclear Principles.[11] 2.2.4 Japans Three Principles of Arms Exports The Three Principles on Arms Exports prevent Japanese firms from selling military hardware and technology on the international market. Like the Three non-nuclear principles, these export restrictions were established by Prime Minister Sato in 1967.[12] Its actual purpose is for Tokyo to bar shipments to the communists bloc and countries on the UN sanction lists. The ban was extended in 1976 to cover all countries, but then eased in 1983 when the United States sought to buy high tech materials for its Stealth bomber fleet and for other uses.[13] The three principles of arms exports prohibit Japan from conducting arms exports to the following countries or regions: Ø Communist bloc countries Ø Countries subject to arms exports embargo under the United Nations Security Councils Resolution and Ø Countries involved in or likely being involved in international conflicts.[14] Up until today, despite increasing calls for the legislation to be relaxed, Japan has no plans to review a government policy that prohibits the export of all military equipment and technologies. 2.3 Japans National Interest References to national interest constitute a new development in Japanese discourse on security. As an academic leaded term, National interest implies a host of realist assumptions concerning state-to state relations and the international system. The concept of national interests is a crucial factor to detect the policy of a state. The hierarchy of national interests can be classified into[15]: Ø Vital, national interests are conditions that are strictly necessary to safeguard and enhance states survival and well-being in a free and secure nation, Ø Extremely Important, national interests are condition that, if compromised, would severely prejudice but not strictly imperil the ability of the states government to safeguard and enhance the well-being of citizens of state in a free and secure nation. Ø Important, national interests are conditions that, if compromised, would have major negative consequences for the ability of the states government to safeguard and enhance the well-being of citizens of a state in a free and secure nation, and Less Important or Secondary, in which national interests are not unimportant. They are important and desirable conditions, but ones that have little direct impact on the ability of the states government to safeguard and enhance the well-being of citizens of state in a free and secure nation. To achieve and secure its national interest, a state would conduct every possible method. However, the term National interest bears a special meaning in the Japanese context. No common agreement exists among elites as to what Japans national interest entails. In fact, national interest is simultaneously a loaded term and a buzzword. When used by policy-oriented Diet members- often young lawmakers in the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan and Democratic Party of Japan-the term loosely corresponds to the academic definition of national interest. In the case of the LDP, however, the term may also contain nationalist overtones. On the other hand, Japanese politicians also employ national interest as a form of rhetoric. For example, when justifying the SDFs dispatch to southern Iraq, Prime Minister Koizumi told the Japanese press that: Reconstruction and stability of Iraq will be directly related to Japans National Interest.[16] Alternatively, during speeches and interviews, Japanese politicians may refer to national interest out of a desire to appear intellectual. Basically, Japan and the United States share common strategic objectives in the Asia-Pacific region. They seek a politically stable and economically viable, open region. Both would like the US to maintain its strong presence in the region. Both want to play an active role in the field of non-traditional security.[17] Dr Masayuki Yamauchi, the member of the Task Force Foreign Relations chaired by Special Adviser to the Cabinet Secretariat Okamoto, proposed that Japans national interests are almost the same as those of the United States, which shares common values such as freedom, democracy, and free trade with Japan. According to him, Japans national interests are[18]: 2.3.1 Maintenance of the Peace and Security of Japan. Security is the most vital national interest for every nation. To maintain its security, Japan as one of the worlds political leaders should engage itself actively in global security affairs. In this notion, former Prime Minister Koizumi stated in accordance with this matter in a press conference that: â€Å"Considering the fact that the development and prosperity of Japan rests upon the peace and stability of the world, I am convinced that the assistance that Japan currently provides, which realizes the policy of the Japan-US Alliance and international coordination, is in its national interest†[19] In a broader sense, the Japanese government also realizes that creating a secure and prosperous world is vital to Japans national interest, in a regional sense, Japans relation with its neighbours are the crucial point for this matter, this shows as the former Prime Minister Taro Aso stated in one of his speeches: â€Å"I have already met with President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao of China eight times in total. I have also held eight summit meetings with President Lee Myung-Bak of the ROK, including the one on the day before yesterday. I believe that the relations with the leaders of these two countries are the closest they have ever been in the post-World War II era. It is we ourselves who create a world that is secure and prosperous. When Japan takes proactive steps towards the realization of such a world, Japan truly furthers its own national interests†[20] More in this notion, the then Foreign Minister for Foreign Affairs Taro Aso mentions the importance of Japan to enhance its position in the region as a key player is stated in one of his speeches: â€Å"Japan is a country whose own prosperity depends on the stability and peace that exists around the globe as a whole. To bring us back to the metaphor of the chain, Japan has national interests in raising the degree of the chain as a whole, even should the means be indirect.†[21] In order to achieve security and prosperity, Japan realizes that the Japan-United States alliance is a vital element to achieve the perceived interest. Former Prime Minister Taro Aso stated in one of his statement that: â€Å"As this issue clearly demonstrates, Japans security and prosperity cannot be secured through the efforts of Japan alone. First of all, it is indispensable that the effectiveness of the Japan-US alliance be ensured. This alliance is a living arrangement and not something for which it suffices simply to have a piece of treaty document. We must constantly strengthen the Japan-US Security Arrangements through unremitting efforts by both Japan and the US. At the same time, as Japan asserts its national interests and gains the cooperation of relevant countries, it must fulfil its international responsibilities in tangible ways.†[22] â€Å"Stability was guaranteed by the Alliances among the free nations. On a global scale, balance and nuclear parity were achieved between Eastern and Western blocs. In North East Asia, the United States stood to bear the burden of security vis-à  -vis the communist military colossi like the Soviets, Chinese and North Koreans, and maintained stability in the region. We owe the peace and prosperity that has been created largely to the United States. And todays spread of democracy in the region is nothing but the result of tireless and colossi efforts by the United States to be a beacon of democracy world wide. It is only the Americans among the Western powers who shed blood of tens of thousands of nationals for the cause of freedom in the region.†[23] Japans peace and security can be regarded as a vital national interest, as this is stated by Nobukatsu Kanehara, the then Political Minister of Japan in 2005: â€Å"Japans grand strategy and vital interests consists in maintaining todays strategic stability and economic prosperity of the entire region. Japan can not do it alone. Maybe no nation could do it alone. And it is naturally that the Japan-US alliance, the alliance of the two biggest industrial democracies in the Asia-Pacific region, is and will be the best vehicle to achieve this daunting goal.†[24] â€Å"Japan is one of the major powers whose vital interests are entrusted to the stability of the world system. As Japan pursues its three major points of national interest, namely her own survival, stability, and prosperity, what is clear is that for a country of Japans size, no event occurring in the world can be ignored as being of no relation or interests.[25]† 2.3.2 Support for the free trade system. It is evident that the free trade system is important for Japan to enjoy economic prosperity. Accordingly, Japan should strengthen the free trade system by establishing a network of bilateral free trade agreements and support the World Trade Organization. â€Å"To promote democracy, free market and to enhance stability and prosperity in the region is not only Japans and Americans interests. It is the historic mission of the Japan-US alliance, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs develops global rules for the world economy and ensures that Japans national interests are reflected within them, a role which is clear and which cannot be carried out by any other domestic entity†[26] In the past, Japan has consistently supported the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since it became a contracting party to the Agreement[27]. Japan has also believes that the global economy has prospered under the open, multilateral trading system under the GATT. Subsequently after the establishment of the World Trade Organizations after the Uruguay rounds, Japan has always been a contributing supportive member[28]. It could be concluded, then, that the maintenance and strengthening of a free and non-discriminatory multilateral trading system is Japans fundamental policy. 2.3.3 Protection of freedom, democracy and human rights. Freedom and democracy are Japans significant accomplishments since the Meiji Era. It is Japans duty to demonstrate a consistent commitment to the protection of these values in order to maintain regional stability. Taro Aso stated in accordance with Japans foreign policy of the issue of Japans determination towards democracy, peace and human rights: â€Å"Coming as we are from this background with such achievements, when it comes to talk of â€Å"universal values† that are commonly held in the world in general, whether it be talk of democracy, or peace, freedom, or human rights, Japan will no longer hesitate to state its views. This is what I am referring to when I speak of value oriented diplomacy, and my remarks to you here today constitute both a declaration of our qualifications and an expression of our determination.†[29] Democracy, peace, and human rights have a significant portion in the conduct of foreign policy for the government of Japan. In the Charter of Official Development Assistance decided in June 1992, Japan announced that, as the basic principles in implementing its aid, it would pay full attention to efforts toward promoting democratization and market-oriented economies, and to situations of basic human rights and freedom in recipient countries.[30] 2.3.4 Promotion of people to people exchanges and development of human resources through exchanges in the area of culture and education. Japan was the first modern country in the Asia-Pacific region. Japan put emphasis on developing human resources and it is because of the promotion of people-to-people exchange and development of human resources that Japan has flourished. It is important for Japan to continue to increase the number of people who understand Japan well. The 1992 diplomatic blue book of Japan stated in one of its paragraph relevantly this issue: â€Å"Japan has come to occupy an important position in the international community where interdependence among countries is growing. Overseas interest in Japan is being heightened. It is in Japans national interest in the medium and-long term to strengthen efforts to further deepen understanding of foreign countries toward Japan through broad cultural and educational exchanges†[31] The Government of Japan viewed that cultural exchange with other countries is a very important means of deepening understanding of Japan on the part of other countries and promoting international friendship and goodwill. It is the intention of the Japanese government to expand and strengthen various cultural exchange activities, as a major part of its diplomatic efforts[32]. 2.4 Japans Security Environments Japan is located in the Pacific Ocean; it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, Peoples Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea, and Russia. Japans closest neighbours are South Korea, Russia, and China.[33] Based on the definition of North East Asia the researcher found, the North east Asian continent consist of the Republic of China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea, and the Russian Federation.[34] The second part of the chapter will try to explore thoroughly Japans security environments, including Japans neighbours, and also emerging security issues such as terrorism and international organized crime. Before we observe specifically several number of states in Japan surrounding region, the researcher would first take a look at the trend in issue of concern in Japans domestic realm, which is described in the following issued by the Cabinet Office of Japan. The above shows changes in Japans public concerns in terms of Japans peace and security. Respondents could choose three issues from a list about a dozen options. The clearly shows that their choices have changed significantly since the end of the Cold War. In February 1991, when the question was fist asked, it was in the midst of the Gulf War. Naturally, most respondents (56.4%) chose the Middle East Issue, as the one that concerned them with regard to Japans peace and security. The second highest percentage of concern was expressed on US-Soviet relations with 44% choosing that option: the timing was not long after the collapse of the Cold War structure. The remote third concern was arms control and reduction with 18.2%. The Korean Peninsula, despite its geographic proximity, came in as the forth most selected option with 17.3%. However, the results changed significantly in the next poll in 1994. the concern on Middle East issue dropped by two-thirds to 18.2 % and that on US-Soviet relations decreased to 31.2%, while the Korean Peninsula became the strongest concern with 34.2%, reflecting the May 1993 North Korean missile test in the Sea of Japan and the nuclear crisis of 1993-94. Since then, public concern about the peninsula has grown with 46.7% in 1997 and 56.7% in 2000 reflecting the August 1998 Taepodong missile incident and the March 1999 invasion into Japans territorial water by spy vessels. In the year 2003, after the December 2001 sunken spy vessel incident and the September 2002 Koizumi visit to Pyongyang, as many as 74.4% of respondents identified the Korean Peninsula as their primary concern. The results of the opinion polls show a clear decline of concern over the US-Soviet (Russia) relations and rapid increase in concern toward the Korean Peninsula among the Japanese public. The series of North Korean provocations since the 1990s as well as the shocking revelation of the abduction of Japanese nationals after Koizumis visit to Pyongyang attracted public attention. The geographical proximity of the Peninsula may have made Japans public concern over national security more realistic than the Soviet during the Cold War period. It is then clear for us to observe, that regional concern is increased in Japans public attention. Therefore, in the next part of this chapter, the researcher would explain specifically several states within Japans regional environments and also non traditional security concern such as terrorism and international organized crime. 2.4.1 Japans Relationship with its Neighbouring Countries 2.4.1.1 Peoples Republic of China China has the worlds largest population and a vast landmass surrounded by 14 countries. It has long borderlines and a long coastline. China is also a nation with various races, religions, and languages. Most of its ethnic minorities[36] populate the borderlands often with the same ethnic groups living across the borders. China, with a long history, has been shaping and maintaining a distinct culture and civilization, and pride of its unique history and the experiences of semi-colonization after the 19th century is driving a desire for a strong nation as well as fuelling their nationalism. China is state with a socialist regime, and aims at building a modern socialist state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Part (CCP). History plays an important role in the bilateral Japanese-Chinese relationship and has an enduring impact on the perceptions, policies and future outlook of both sides. Historical experience shapes identities, but it is also instrumentalized for pressure on the other side. Depending on the prevailing political situation at a given time. Japan and China have found reasons for optimism or pessimism about their relationship. There have been many instances where Japan-China relations have soured due to various problems originating in history. Even now, the past still haunts bilateral relations. The problem of Yasukuni Shrine[37], school history books[38], the Nanking incident[39], comfort women[40], and also abandoned chemical weapons-these problems related to national honour and dignity have stirred up the emotions of the people of both countries. The core elements of Chinas strategic policies are rebuilding the economy and modernizing its armed forces in order to protect Chinas territorial integrity, providing peripheral security, and restoring her great power status. Taiwan reunification, the defeat of Uyghur separatist in Xinjiang Province, and the defeat of Tibetan insurgency are the dominant issues under territorial integrity. Despite the growth in Chinas economic and military power over the last decade, China remains paranoid about U.S. â€Å"hegemonic† power. China perceives the United States as attempting to contain China through its bilateral alliance structure. China was extremely critical of the 1996 reaffirmation of the U.S-Japan Security Alliance by President Clinton and Prime Minister Hashimoto. On the other hand, China supports the U.S military presence in Japan to keep the â€Å"cork in the bottle† and prevent Japans return to militarism.[41] Wu Xinbo concluded, in an article in 2000, that most policy and academic elites in China do not embrace the idea that Japan will become militarized and aggressive, but rather that their concern is That the increase in Japans military capabilities will shift the balance of power in Japans favour. A militarily powerful Japan is more likely to invoke its alliance with the US to intervene should a military conflict arise in the Taiwan Straits. [42] Historically speaking, When China tested its first nuclear device in October 1964[43], in public the Japanese government reacted very calmly and played it down, hinting at the protection given by the US nuclear umbrella. Feeling secure under the American conventional and nuclear umbrella, Japan was not overly concerned about China becoming a nuclear power in 1964.[44] When Prime Minister Yoshida travelled to Europe in 1955 he indirectly criticised the USAs confrontational approach to Asian communism by stating in a policy paper that in fighting communism, political and economic strength was as important as military might, if not more so'[45] 2.4.1.1.1 The Military Modernization of the Peoples Republic of China In recent years, Japan has become increasingly concerned about Chinese military modernization and behaviour. In its 2006 defense white paper, the Japan Defense Agency stressed that Chinas defense budget was doubling every five years and that at the current rate, Chinas official reported defense expenditures would surpass Japans defense budget by 2009. It also noted that Chinas actual defense expenditures could be higher because all equipment procurement and research and development costs are not included in the official budget s.[46] In 2007, the Chinese Government announced a staggering increase of almost 17.8% of its military budget[47], resulting in questions asked by the government of its neighbours, including Japan, of its necessity and intentions. Relying mostly in on a naval presence for maintaining its military position, and given the circumstance that China is particularly backward in this arm category, Chinas challenge looks relatively comfortable despite alarmist US media and public opinion polls, and despite Chinas ability to make sustaining US supremacy more costly and/or more difficult in the meantime.[48] The US may consider the Chinese navy still far away from becoming a blue-ocean navy, but for Japanese policy makers Chinas predominantly coastal navy is rather close to Japanese waters, as we have seen in the context of the disputes over the Senkaku Islands and the EEZ.[49] 2.4.1.1.2 Japan-China Territorial Disputes: The Senkaku Islands The Senkaku Islands territorial disputes is one of the most pressing and potentially destabilizing territorial disputes on Japans Horizon, however, involves five small islands and three â€Å"Rocky outcroppings†. The islands, which the Japanese call the Senkaku and the Chinese the Diaoyu, lie roughly 100 miles Northeast of Taiwan and approximately 250 miles west of Japans southernmost prefecture, Okinawa. The largest of these uninhabited islands covers approximately 20 acres, and has the potential to bring the two former combatants into open hostilities once more. The fate of the islands has become a rallying point for Japanese and Chinese nationalists alike. In the summer of 1996, members of the nationalists Japan Youth Association erected aluminium, solar-powered lighthouse that measured about 15 feet tall and petitioned Japans Coast Guard to designate the beacon an official navigational signal and thereby reinforce Japans claims of sovereignty. The Coast Guard has yet to accede to this request. The lighthouse incident led to protests in Taiwan and Hong Kong, some of which involved as many as 10,000 angry Chinese demanding satisfactions for this affront to Chinas sovereignty. The Japanese are quick to point out that China never showed any particular interest in the disposition of the Senkaku Islands until a 1968 United Nations report suggested that there might be large petroleum deposits under the East China Sea in the vicinity of the Senkaku. In fact, the Chinese did not object to Japans 1895 assumption of sovereignty over the islands, nor did it voice any concerns regarding the islands status under Article III of the San Francisco Peace Treaty. As it relates to the Senkaku Islands, Article III says the following: â€Å"Japan will concur in any proposal of the United States to the United Nations to place under the trusteeship system, with the United States as the sole administering authority, Nansei Shoto south of 29 degrees North Latitude (including the Ryukyu Islands and the Daito Islands†.[50] To further bolster their claim, the Japanese aversion that the United States considers the Senkaku Islands to be Japan

The Emperor and Nationalist Ideology in Meiji Era Japan Essay -- Meiji

The Emperor and Nationalist Ideology in Meiji Era Japan The Meiji Era in Japan is known as a time of rapid industrialization and Westernization where many institutions of society were realigned in one form or another to be consistent with their Western counterparts. Ironically, at the same time, it was a period of growing nationalistic feelings that began to develop in Japanese society. However, besides being a reactionary or nostalgic feeling experienced by the population, this nationalist ideology was also actively promoted by the Meiji leadership. Central to this ideology was the emperor who was effectively and successfully used as a tool for legitimizing the Meiji government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to myth, the Japanese emperor is a direct descendent of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. Despite seldom having any real power, the emperor was often used by rulers of Japan as a means to add credibility to their governments. It comes as no surprise than that the thinkers of the Meiji Era would make the emperor central to their efforts at fostering nationalist feelings among the population as a means of suppressing negative reaction towards their efforts at modernization. Historically the emperor had three significant functions – â€Å"as a holder of power, he has served as a supreme ruler or at least a participant in the competition for power within Japan; †¦ as the repository of sovereignty, he has served as the ultimate source of authority within the Japanese state, exercising such authority if only to provide legitimacy for successive de facto hegemonies; †¦ [and] as an ultimate symbol of the moral order and identity of the Japanese people, he has served as the sanctifying element in a variety of theories of government and national organization.† It is evident that â€Å"the imperial institution has been many things at many times at it has undergone changes within these three functional level; for although a single imperial lineage was able to perpetuate itself in Japan, the relationship between the dynasty, the government and the people of Japan has changed frequently in the course of events.† Since 1868, Japan was â€Å"faced first with the crisis of national identity, the... ...f the Meiji period two ubiquitous images gradually emerged as symbols of ‘civilization’: the monarch and the locomotive; †¦ for modernity there were to be no two more powerful symbols for a long time to come.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As we can see, the emperor has been central to the efforts of the Meiji rulers to legitimize their government and preempt reactionary feelings on the part of the Japanese population with a state-sponsored nationalistic ideology. Although rarely explaining in rational terms the reason for revering the imperial establishment, they were nevertheless correct in assuming that the emperor would prove to be a means at unifying the country. Select Bibliography Conroy, Hilary, and Sndra T. W. Davis, eds. Japan in Transition: Though and Action in the Meiji Era, 1868-1912. London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1984. Gluck, Carol. Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. Pyle Kenneth B. The Making of Modern Japan. Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Company, 1978. Ward, Robert E. ed. Political Development in Modern Japan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968.

Naslunds Novel, Ahabs Wife and Melvilles Moby Dick :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

Challenging Writing as a Male Tradition in Naslund's Novel, Ahab's Wife and Melville's Moby Dick In Sena Jeter Naslund's novel Ahab's Wife, there is repetitive reference to "the chaos of the waves (40);" Naslund uses these images of turbulent water in contrast to the precise and patterned nature of stitched quilts. She equates the process of "writing a book" to the "posture of sewing (70)." She asserts "when one stitches, the mind travels...And books, like quilts, are made one word at a time, one stitch at a time (70)." The consequences of making this type of connection within a literary narrative authored by a woman writer are penetrative to the fundamental assumptions about the creation of literature. I put forth, then, the theory that Naslund knowingly mocks the concept that writing, particularly writing to make literature, is primarily a male tradition, the prevailing thought during Una's existence as a fictional character. Naslund derives Una from Moby-Dick, takes a peripheral character in a major novel about a man's "war upon the deep (18)," a novel she knows has been marked a classic and has endured beyond its time period, and compels the shadow-figure of the male's narrative into the prominent voice of a female's narrative. What is produced by the male becomes a reproduction by the female. In effect, tradition is usurped, inversed, and woman dominates the text, a text birthed by Melville, a hugely lauded male author. Therefore, man author exchanges positions with woman, becomes impregnated by a story, tells the story, brings the story into existence. The woman author takes the story and retells it, reclaiming it as her own, brings a new story into existence. She overshadows the object of fiction previously created and through intertextuality connects herself to the expanse of literature. She blatantly utilizes the man's text to her own literary advantages, and discovers an act of erecting a me morial for women through "one word at a time." The "stitching" of "one word at a time" in direct opposition to the journey of man's mind which "travels...with ax and oxen through the wilderness (70)" explicitly undermines Ahab's journey, his "war upon the deep," whether or not Una is aware of the disruptive quality of her stream of consciousness. Una suggests that "writing a book...which men

Essay --

In today’s time, media has impacted everyone in the society. The entertainment world shows everything there is to consider in our present time. Whether it is good or bad, it is expected to be seen in the movies, TV shows and advertisements. Today, sexual scenes and pornography are just some of what entice young viewers to explore their sexuality. These are often related to sexual behaviors, in which are frequently very risky to both actors and viewers. The technological advancement that we have today creates ways for people to further discover their sexuality. Video cameras and Internet has come hand in hand in performing dangerous sexual acts. Nowadays, young teenagers view sexual behavior in association of pornography. In relation to the Health Belief Model, teenagers often perceive risky sexual behavior as â€Å"normal† part of puberty. They perceive sexual activity as a reward as being a teenager. Risky sexual acts are perceived as a â€Å"feel good, must have† idea. Teenagers see the benefits of being accepted in the crowd, and feeling like grown-ups. They often do not see the negative consequences of the action, due to what is repeatedly shown in media. And because of that, the Social Cognitive Theory shows that risky sexual behavior is affected by the individual’s beliefs and the environmental factors. Of course, self-efficacy plays a big role to allow teenagers to perform such risky behaviors. Another model that applies to risky sexual behavior is the Theory of Planned Behavior. Due to normative beliefs of teenagers that the society welcomes sexual performance, they think that they should perform similarly. As well as the perceived control of action, teenagers believe that as a teen, they are in the stage of exploring ... ...Behavior. In our modern times, we can hardly find someone who does not know about pornography. Our sexuality in this advance age has become easy to experiment and manipulate. As sexual beings, we have mainly focused on our benefits from pornography. We have disregarded the different results that could be caused by it. Though we have seen pictures and heard stories regarding violence and assaults, we continue to our patronage to these industries. The next time we search for porn, maybe we should first think about the people in the explicit pictures and obscene videos. Do we know if the pleasure we are getting from the videos as satisfying for them? Are they making pornographic films for pleasure? Or are they forced to be part of this industry in order to survive a living? Perhaps, we have only set out our eyes on what is only seen and not on what is behind it.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods

Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis in management research. Your answer should make reference to the philosophical assumptions which underpin these methodological approaches. Introduction Whenever a decision is made to undertake a piece of research a method for conducting the study is required. In scientific research the techniques typically used for data collection and analysis are those which allow the evaluation of data to test a predetermined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). An example of this is a laboratory-based experiment where the researcher can be in full control of all the variables involved and can therefore be sure that any change in the phenomena under investigation is a direct result of an identified and controlled stimulus. In marketing research however, which is usually reliant on some aspect of human influence, it has been proposed that such a uniform, rigid approach is not appropriate: â€Å"There is never a single, perfect research design that is the best for all marketing research projects, or even a specific type of marketing research task. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000: p. 70) The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, specifically focusing on the marketing perspective. To do this, consideration is firstly given to the basic differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches, considering the seemingly opposing theoretical paradigms from which they have origina ted. Subsequently the development of the marketing discipline is examined with a specific focus on how and why different research methods have been employed in the field. Attention is Page 1 of 1 iven to the need for marketing to address both the issue of verifying existing hypotheses, and the requirement to develop new theory. As there appears to be no ideal research method for use in marketing it would seem that what is important is being critically aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches available. Finally, therefore, the notion of pluralism, or methodological triangulation, is explored as such an approach is often used to exploit the strengths and minimise weaknesses in research design through the combination of two or more research methods, often from opposing theoretical paradigms. Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research Qualitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection, analysis and interpretation of data that cannot be meaningfully quantified, that is, summarised in the form of numbers. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Whereas quantitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection of data that involves larger, more representative respondent samples and the numerical calculation of results. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Historically it has been considered that science based disciplines such as mathematics and physics are especially suited to quantitative research methods. Such methods are considered to be objective and lead to numerical, absolute outcomes, which can be verified through repetition and further testing (Zikmund, 2000); in other words the knowledge is external to the knower (Milliken, 2001), and therefore is available be found by whoever conducts the necessary research (Cunningham, 1999). This view of natural science can be considered to fit within the positivist paradigm, where a paradigm can be thought of as theoretical framework for looking at a situation and a basis upon which phenomena can be analysed and interpreted Page 2 of 2 (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Kuhn (1970) supports the need for paradigms on the basis that they bind disciplines together, and without them there would be no valid position from which to undertake research. Deshpande (1983) suggests that the acceptance of a particular theoretical aradigm is typically followed by a choice of a specific set of research methods that appear to fit within it. This is perhaps exemplified by the significant use of laboratory experiments in pure scientific disciplines. Within the social sciences however there has been a long-standing debate surrounding which philosophical standpoint, or paradigm, it is appropriate for research methods to be derived from (Milliken, 2001). Cohen et al (2000) consider there to be two m ajor, apparently contradictory, views relating to how research should be conducted within social science. The first aligns social science with natural science and therefore implies that research in the field should be directed towards the search for universal laws which regulate individual social behaviour. The second focuses on the human element of social science research, with recognition of the notion that people are not inanimate objects and therefore cannot be treated as such. Aligning social science with natural science arguably implies that data collection and analysis is best performed from a positivist standpoint. As research methods favoured by positivists tend towards those reliant on quantification (Gill and Johnson, 2002), it would follow that in management research the focus should be on quantitative research methods. Research conducted from the positivist viewpoint is usually considered to be reductionist in nature, and is often termed hypothetico-deductive, as it aims to derive a result in relation to a predefined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). Conversely, an approach to research which embraces human individuality and places emphasis on how people perceive and give meaning to their own Page 3 of 3 socially created world, can be considered constructivist (Hunt, 1994), and phenomenological (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The focus from this standpoint is therefore on understanding, interpreting and building theory rather than objectively testing, deducing and verifying an existing hypothesis. Such an approach can be considered inductive in nature and therefore favours the adoption of qualitative research methods. ollows: â€Å"†¦the most telling and fundamental distinction between the paradigms is on the dimension of verification versus discovery†¦quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories and†¦qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. † (Reichardt and Cook, 1979: cited in Deshpande, 1983: p. 105 ) This can be explained further as At the extreme of the inductive spectrum lies the concept of grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Here the researcher builds theory based entirely on the data obtained in a particular study without the influence of predetermined knowledge or preconceived hypotheses. Taking deduction to the extreme hypotheses can only ever be tested, raising the question of how it is possible to obtain a hypothesis in the first place. This presents a number of dilemmas with regard to research in the field of management, including whether it is more appropriate to test existing hypotheses or to develop new theory. The theory-testing versus theory-generation debate is particularly significant in the field of marketing as, due to the relative youth of the discipline, marketers are faced with the challenge of both obtaining and maintaining respect and credibility for the work that has been done so far (Bartels, 1983); and continuing to generate theory needed to develop a coherent, holistic body of knowledge which will clear up marketing’s existing â€Å"theory mess† (Gummesson, 2002: p. 349). Page 4 of 4 Development of research in the field of marketing The discipline of marketing, which came about as a departure from economics not long after 1900, originally had no identity of its own. There was no predetermined framework for its development, nor any real expectation of what it should, or could, become (Bartels, 1983). The way the discipline started to develop however led to a belief that it had â€Å"†¦meritorious scientific character† (Bartels, 1983: p. 34), which subsequently influenced ideas about the way in which credible research in the field should be conducted. Consequently approaches to research in marketing have historically been dominated by deductive processes (Hyde, 2000). Milliken (2001) supports this with the observation that within the marketing literature there has been little attention paid to qualitative research. If marketing was universally accepted to be akin to a pure science then this may be an acceptable situation. It has been suggested however that, rather than being a science, marketing is actually an art which belongs both to the world of business and the school of humanities (Halliday, 1999). It was noted by Deshpande (1983) that in the early 1980s there were only four major textbooks dealing with the metatheoretical issues in marketing, and it can therefore be understood that â€Å"†¦self conscious reflection on theory construction in marketing is of fairly recent origin. † (p. 104). Peter (1982), supported by Deshpande (1983), argues that the dominant philosophical approach applied in marketing is that of logical empiricism. Such a positivist approach forces a â€Å"†¦search for causality and the assumption of determinism† (Hunt, 1994: p. 7), which directs those conducting marketing research towards hypotheticodeductive methods for the verification of existing theories rather than development of new ones. Page 5 of 5 Goulding (1999) suggests that the popularity of the positivist paradigm may be down to the more transparent rules which it projects with regard to the basis of hypotheses and their testing, resulting in a clearer picture of what is a ccepted to be known and what remains unknown or untested. As marketing is a relatively young discipline, quantitative methods have therefore been regularly favoured over qualitative methods in an attempt to establish credibility and respectability (Bartels, 1983). Bass (1993) unreservedly supports quantitative research and the scientific view of marketing, on the basis of the need to make general laws and principles which can be widely applied. To emphasise his position further Bass (1993) repeatedly refers to the discipline as not as â€Å"marketing† but as â€Å"marketing science†. Despite this apparent favouritism of qualitative research, for establishing integrity and credence, it has been suggested that marketing as a discipline has failed to develop a coherent theoretical foundation due to the inappropriate selection and use of methods within the framework of logical empiricism (Leone and Schultz, 1980). criticises how qualitative research is implemented. Gummesson (2001) also He questions whether or not it is ppropriate to make a jump from a subjective answer given by a person, perhaps in the form of a questionnaire response, to hard facts about the population being studied, and furthermore if a model being selected for use in marketing research can be an appropriate proxy for the particular situation being studied. Gummesson (2001) instead advocates an interactive approach to research in marketing based on â€Å"†¦a humanistic, hermeneutic and phenomenological paradigm. (p. 40). Deshpande (1983) is in agreement with this and proposes that, rather th at the incorrectly using quantitative research methods, the shortfall in theory development in the field may lie in the inappropriate adoption of a quantitative paradigm where a qualitative one would be more appropriate: â€Å"If we ignore the qualitative paradigm, we also by definition exclude the principal systematic means of theory generation. † (Deshpande, 1983: p. 106) Page 6 of 6 The dominance of logical empiricism in marketing has therefore been seen as potentially detrimental to the discipline, because the successful development of an appropriate holistic and sound body of theory is necessary for the credibility of the field in both management and academe (Bartels, 1983). Hunt (1994) however observes that scholars in the field of marketing, particularly those reviewing papers for publication in academic journals, may themselves be responsible for the lack of theory generation by being over critical when reviewing the work of those who attempt to make an original contribution. According to Gummesson (2001) this behaviour reinforces the belief that to build a publications record, and a respectable reputation, marketers are being encouraged to test existing theory using quantitative methods rather than generate theory through qualitative investigation. This, it has been suggested, has resulted in there being no development in general management marketing theory over recent decades, leaving marketing as an array of disjointed theories and ideas founded on arguably obsolete principles Gummesson (2001). The lack of credibility given to qualitative research techniques in marketing from the academic perspective does however appear somewhat ironic given that such methods are widely adopted in marketing research in industry (Deshpande, 1983). Although it may appear that qualitative marketing research is a relatively recent revelation, Deshpande (1983) argues that this is not the case. He observes that there was significant interest in the topic in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1980s, Fern (1982) suggested that the reason one specific qualitative technique, focus groups, had failed to gain prominence was a lack of empirical testing, which would allow the theory development necessary to acquire credibility. In other words a qualitative technique struggled to generate recognition because it could not satisfy the positivistic evaluation criteria needed to do so. This is perhaps indicative of the historical power of positivism in marketing academia in determining what can be accepted as credible Page 7 of 7 nd what cannot, regardless of whether or not techniques are accepted in the commercial environment. Malhotra and Peterson (2001) suggest that for marketing to move forward in the twenty-first century it is necessary to bridge the gap between the academic and commercial positions. There is evidence of increasing acceptance of qualitative methods in marketing research, especially in managing research as the marketplace evolves. For example Kozinet z (2002) developed â€Å"netnography† as a technique for gaining insight into online communities based on a combination of the principles of ethnography and focus groups. Quantitative techniques it would appear still have their place in marketing research too, despite the criticisms levelled at them. The SERVQUAL questionnaire for example, originally developed by Parasuraman et al (1988), relies on the collection of data which can be statistically manipulated to determine levels of service quality. Notwithstanding the substantial criticism it has received (see Buttle, 1996), it is still being used in marketing research today (see e. g. DeMoranville and Bienstock, 2003). What it would consequently appear important to recognise is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their place in marketing research; neither is sufficient on its own, and there is potentially for significant advances to be made if marketing researchers acknowledge this (Deshpande, 1983). Triangulation and methodological pluralism There is a place in marketing research for both qualitative and quantitative research. There is also a significant risk that overly staunch advocates of a single paradigm will forego the quality of their research by valuing the methodological choice above the aim of the particular Page 8 of 8 study (Bartels, 1983). From a marketing research perspective the importance therefore lies in recognition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of both the qualitative and quantitative research and the understanding of the strengths and weakness of particular methods. Cahill (1996) supports this with the recognition that qualitative and quantitative techniques can be complementary, and Milliken (2001) suggests that the reality of a real research situation demands compromise between the seemingly opposed philosophical standpoints on which the methods are based. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods presents the researcher with an opportunity to compensate for the weakness in each approach. (Deshpande, 1983), and within the field of marketing there appears to be a significant move towards combining qualitative and quantitative research methods (Milliken, 2001). Perry (1998) emphasises the benefit of case study methodology in marketing and suggests that there is no need to consider induction and deduction to be mutually exclusive when selecting a research method. He emphasises that realism is the most appropriate paradigm from which to undertake marketing research as it allows the building of new theory whilst incorporating existing knowledge. Strength in method combination does not necessarily have to include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Hall and Rist (1999) present a marketing study based on the triangulation of purely qualitative research methods including focus groups, observation and document examination. They argue that doing this eliminates the risks of relying on a single method and therefore enhances research quality and strengthens the credibility of qualitative techniques. Page 9 of 9 Methodological pluralism, whilst appearing to offer reconciliation between opposing theoretical paradigms in relation to research method choice, does itself introduce debate and criticism. Gill and Johnson (2002) for example note that embracing realism can be seen as accepting positivism at the cost of phenomenology as it may involve the †¦operationalization and measurement of social reality (stimuli) and action (response)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 170). Consequently, combining research methods can itself become part of the argument rather than a solution. Conclusion The decision of whether to adopt qualitative or quantitative methods in management research historically appears to be based on the philosophical assumptions upheld by the individual researcher or the discipline in which he or she is work ing. A paradigmatic dichotomy between positivism and phenomenology (or constructivism) would seem to have resulted in a situation where, in some instances, the research methodology choice is deemed more significant than the subject of the particular study. Marketing is a relatively young discipline within the field of management and, as such, is faced with the challenge of obtaining and maintaining credibility. To do this it has been proposed that it needs to both test existing theory and generate new theory, however the processes required to achieve these two goals can be seem to stem from diametrically opposed paradigms: theory-testing being achievable through deductive methods; and theory generation relying on an inductive approach. This incommensurability has however been challenged with the assertion that what is important is selecting an appropriate methodology for a particular study, rather than fitting a Page 10 of 10 study to a method. Methodological triangulation has been suggested as a means of achieving this, with a move towards a paradigm of realism where the relative advantages and disadvantages of a number of research methods can be embraced. Whilst at face value this approach may appear to offer a compromise offering the best practical solution to the methodological choice dispute, it also introduces criticism of its own which, in turn fuels the debate further. The general aim of this discussion, to consider the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods, has itself been conducted from an ostensibly positivistic standpoint. In fact any discussion, comparison or assessment of research methods is arguably starting from a predetermined premise that an objective evaluation is being undertaken (Gill and Johnson, 2002), and can therefore be seen to be embracing positivist ideals. Taking into account the amount of attention that has been paid to philosophical approaches to management research; the ambiguities that are apparent; the ongoing search for the most suitable and appropriate means for conducting studies; and the motivation to establish and maintain credibility, it would seem unlikely that end to the debate regarding research methods in management is in sight: â€Å"Like the earth being round, thus lacking a natural end, the journey in Methodologyland has no end. You search again and again and again, just as the term says: re-search, re-search, re-search. (Gummesson, 2001: p. 29) Page 11 of 11 References Bartels, R. (1983), â€Å"Is marketing defaulting its responsibilities? †, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 32-35 Bass, F. M. (1993), â€Å"The future of research in marketing: Marketing Science†, Journal of Marketing Research, 30(1), pp. 1-6 Buttle, F. (1996), â€Å"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda†, European Journal o f Marketing, 30(1), pp. 8-32 Cahill, D. J. (1996), â€Å"When to use qualitative methods: a new approach†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(6), pp. 16-20 Cohen, L. , Manion, L. and Morr, K. 2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, Routledge: London Cunningham, A. C. (1999), â€Å"Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner: meeting the challenges of marketing’s destruction†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(7/8), pp. 685-697 DeMoranville, C. W. and Bienstock, C. C. (2003), â€Å"Question order effects in measuring service quality†, International Journal of research in Marketing, 20(3), pp. 217-231 Deshpande, R. (1983), â€Å"Paradigms Lost: On theory and method in research in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 101-110 Fern, E. F. 1982), â€Å"The use of focus groups for idea generation: the effects of group size, acquaintanceship, and moderator on response quantity and quality†, Journal of Marketing Research , 19(1), pp. 1-13 Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002), Research Methods For Mangers, 3rd Edition, London: SAGE Publications Ltd Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Aldine Publishing Company: Chicago Goulding, C. (1999), â€Å"Consumer research, interpretive paradigms and methodological ambiguities†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(9/10), pp. 59-873 Gummesson, E. (2001), â€Å"Are current research approaches in marketing leading us astray? †, Marketing Theory, 1(1), pp. 27-48 Gummesson, E. (2002), â€Å"Practical value of adequate marketing management theory†, European Journal of Marketing, 36(3), pp. 325-349 Hall, A. L. and Rist, R. C. (1999), â€Å"Integrating multiple qualitative research methods (or avoiding the precariousness of a one-legged stool)†, Psychology & Marketing, 16(4), pp. 291304 Page 12 of 12 Halliday, S. 1999), â€Å"I don’t know much about art, but I know what I like: resonance, relevance and illumination as assessment criteria for marketing research and scholarship†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 17(7), pp. 345-362 Hunt, S. D. (1994), â€Å"On rethinking marketing: Our discipline, our practice, our methods†, European Journal of Marketing, 28(3), pp. 13-25 Hyde, K. F. (2000), â€Å"Recognising deductive processes in qualitative research†, Qualitative Market Research, 3(2), pp. 82-90 Kozinets, R. V. (2002), â€Å"The field behind the screen: Using Netnography for marketing research in online communities†, Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), pp. 1-72 Kuhn, T. S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd Edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Leone, R. P. and Schultz, R. L. (1980), â€Å"A study of marketing generalizations†, Journal of Marketing, 44(1), pp. 10-18 Malhotra, N. K. and Birks, D. F. (2000), Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, 3rd European Edition, Harlow, Engl and: Financial Times Prentice Hall Malhotra, N. K. and Peterson, M. (2001), â€Å"Marketing research in the new millennium: emerging issues and trends†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 19(4), pp. 16-235 Milliken, J. (2001), â€Å"Qualitative research and marketing management†, Management Decision, 39(1), pp. 71-77 Parasuraman, A. , Grewal, D. and Krishnan, R. (2004), Maketing Research, Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company Parasuraman, A. , Zeithaml, V. A. and Berry, L. L. (1988), â€Å"SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumers perceptions of service quality†, Journal of Retailing, 64(1), pp. 12-40 Perry, C. (1998), â€Å"Process of a case study methodology for postgraduate research in marketing†, 32(9/10), pp. 785-802 Peter, J. P. 1982), â€Å"Current issues in the philosophy of science: Implications for marketing theory – a panel discussion†, in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, Bush, R. F. and Hunt, S. D. (eds. ), Chicago, American Marketing, pp. 11-16 Reichardt, C. S. and Cook, T. D. (1979), â€Å"Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods†, in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research, Cook, T. D and Reichardt, (eds. ) Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Zikmund, W. G. (2000), Business Research Methods, 6th Edition, Orlando, USA: The Dryden Press, Harcourt College Publishers Page 13 of 13